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Equal volumes from each of the antivenoms was used as they all were of the same 10ml vial size. Thus the potency is relative to a consistent amount of antivenom used by volume not by stated protein content or efficacy claims. The data are thus direct head to head comparisons in this regard. Values are means of the ability to proportionally shift a curve, with the highest effect being ICP against Ghana which shifted the venom cuve of E. occelatus nearly sixty five times over (N=3 with error bars indicating standard deviation). Eca-I = E. carinatus (India), Ecs-P = E. c. sochureki (Pakistan), Ecs-U = E. c. sochureki (UAE), Eco-S = E. coloratus (Saudi Arabia), Ejo-S = E.jogeri (Senegal), Ele-M = E. leucogaster (Mali), Eoc-G = E. ocellatus (Ghana), Eoc-M = E. ocellatus (Mali), Eoc-N = E. ocellatus (Nigeria), Epl-K = E. pyramidum leakeyi (Kenya). Click here to download the associated paper https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1462791878557-DWFECIMUL9FXF73PUXFN/image-asset.jpeg Coagulotoxins https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1462791791275-MDRD50M1RTMEN74JE583/image-asset.jpeg Coagulotoxins https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512194972859-SN3A5JY80QH9TNHO4KZ5/Figure+7+Phytools+antivenom+comparison.jpg Coagulotoxins Ancestral state reconstruction of relative species selectivity for each antivenom where warmer colours represent better antivenom cross-reactivity. Values are normalised N=3 means within an antivenom. Bars indicate 95% confidence intervals for the estimate at each node. Note that due to the high dynamicity of venom evolution the ranges quickly become broad as one moves down the tree. Click here to download the associated paper http://www.venomdoc.com/new-page-2 daily 0.75 2017-12-02 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512199431079-P7BPUA0J3OJYL7B9ID25/coralsnakesm+copy.jpg Neurotoxins https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1463872674071-3J2WEAIXT35OWGWELSXZ/image-asset.jpeg Neurotoxins Neurotoxic convergence, click here to read the associated paper https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512199566950-LPUGH6DDE6IH7WCKNM3Q/Calliophis+dissection+2.jpg Neurotoxins Dissection of a preserved museum specimen, with the preserving chemicals having leached away the amazing red colouring of the belly http://www.venomdoc.com/lab-publications daily 0.75 2025-09-25 http://www.venomdoc.com/molecular-evolution daily 0.75 2017-12-02 http://www.venomdoc.com/venom-system-evolution daily 0.75 2017-12-02 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512245850438-8D4QFO2TM7668A0BFWNR/Fig+3+dissection.jpg Snake Venom System Evolution Dissections of A) Malpolon monspessulanus, B) Cylindrophis ruffus and C) Aspidites melanocephalus. Click here to download the associated paper https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512245814134-ZL7TY3JFTFOXF8QXVOCK/Glands+Fig.8+MRI.jpg Snake Venom System Evolution Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of snake oral glands. Orange = Mucoid labial glands (no venom gland); yellow = mucoid labial glands (in presence of venom gland); red = venom gland; green = “scolecophidian” oral glands of unknown homology (see text for discussion). A) Eunectes notaeus, B) Python regius with the mandibular glands exceeding the size of the maxillary as part of the exaptation for lubrication of feathered and furred prey, C) Pantherophis guttatus, D) Dendroaspis polylepis, E Cerberus rynchops, F) Helicops leopardinus G/H Anilios guentheri. Click here to download the associated paper https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512245774203-59GXKL6V5BND46QE1KET/Glands+Fig.1+oral+glands+drawing.jpg Snake Venom System Evolution Simple schematic of the oral glands of snakes. The glands of the upper jaw include the premaxillary (brown), supralabial (blue), venom (pink), and rictal (green). The glands of the lower jaw include the infralabial (red), sublingual (yellow), and the supralingual (grey). Click here to download the associated paper http://www.venomdoc.com/lizard-venom-system-evolution daily 0.75 2017-12-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512294754701-UTSTILX64HBJTUGVN9MY/Color+plate+4+Anguimorpha+glands.jpg Lizard Venom System Evolution Anatomical variations in the anguimorph lizard venom systems . (A) Varanus komodoensis, magnetic resonance imaging: (A1) showing the six compartments (pink/red) of the mandibular venom gland and the infralabial mucus gland (yellow); (A2) longitudinal MRI section showing large ducts emerging separately from each mandibular venom gland compartment; and (A3) transverse MRI section showing the mandibular venom gland large central lumen (red) and labial gland individual lobes (yellow). Transverse histology of Masson’s Trichrome stained sections: (A4) the intratubular lumina of the mandibular venom gland that feed into the large central lumen; (A5) a mucus infralabial lobule (note that the six large dark folds are histology artifacts). (B) Lanthanotus borneensis: (B1) dissection of the mandibular venom gland (computationally highlighted red) and the mucus gland (computationally highlighted yellow); (B2) transverse histology section of the mandibular venom gland compartments (Kochva 1974); (B3) longitudinal MRI of the mandibular venom gland and the infralabial mucus gland. (C) Heloderma horridum: (C1) MRI of the mandibular venom gland; (C2) dissection of the mandibular venom gland (computationally highlighted red) and the mucus gland (computationally highlighted yellow); and (C3) histology of the venom gland intracellular storage granules (computationally highlighted red) and the nucleus (computationally highlighted black). (D) Gerrhonotus infernalis: (D1) longitudinal MRI of the multiple compartments (one per tooth); and (D2) Masson’s Trichrome stained longitudinal histology revealing the seromucous mixed gland arrangement with the protein-secreting regions (dark reddish-purple) ventral to the mucus-secreting region (grayish-green). Mandibular gland histology sections: (E) the Iguania species Anolis equestris stained with Masson’s Trichrome histology showing the mixed seromucous gland; or (F) the Xantusiidae species Lepidophyma flavimaculatum stained with Periodic Acid Schiff’s showing the purely mucus-secreting gland. http://www.venomdoc.com/cobra-defensive-venom-evolution daily 0.75 2017-12-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512255116796-1UA5T03PYWIFL0VPWDB8/colours.jpg Cobra Defensive Venom Evolution Convergent aposematic hood colouring in the African spitting cobras such as (A) Naja katiensis; (B) Naja pallida; (C) Naja mossambica; (D) Naja nigricollis; and (E) convergently in the adult colouring in the Malaysian population of Ophiophagus hannah (the most cytotoxic O. hannah population). Photos (A) Stephen Sprawls, (B) Wikimedia Commons; (C,D) Randy Ciuros; (E) Kevin Messenger. CLICk here to download the associated paper https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512254215052-WJVNB0CF8SSL7ZD0MZFX/tree.jpg Cobra Defensive Venom Evolution Ancestral state reconstructions of hooding, spitting, and cytotoxicity; based on ambiguous Aspidelaps species coded as non-hooding as well as the ambiguous N. atra and N. kaouthia also coded as non-spitting. Reconstruction over branches represents the AUC for the non-transformed NFF cell line (left) and the melanoma (MM96L) cancer cell line (right), where warmer colours represent higher cytotoxicity against cell lines (raw data in Supplementary Tables). Pie charts are the same on both trees and represent estimates of ancestral states for hooding (above branch) and spitting (below branch) where black and white represent the trait being present or absent respectively. States at tips represent the data collected. CLICk here to download the associated paper https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512254889151-3KFWK2QJPA81QZXA54BD/bands.jpg Cobra Defensive Venom Evolution Convergent aposematic banding in the strongly cytotoxic species (A) Naja annulifera; (B) Hemachatus haemachatus; (C) Naja nigricincta; (D) Naja siamensis; and (E) Ophiophagus hannah; Photos by (A,D) Randy Ciuros; (B) Giuseppe Mazza; (C,E) Tom Charlton. CLICk here to download the associated paper https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512255365819-LK7PEZU1NFOGY6HTGDHN/water+cobra.jpg Cobra Defensive Venom Evolution Disruptive camouflage patterning in aquatic snakes (A,B) Naja annulata which also has a secondarily extremely reduced hood and also secondarily lost its cytotoxicity; (C) Laticauda colubrina; (D) Emydocephalus annulatus; (E) Eunectes murinus and fish (F) Cichla orinocensis; (G) Salmo trutta. Photos (A) Markus Oulehla; (B,D) Wikimedia Commons; (C) Jan Messersmith; (E) Rhett A. Butler; (F) Ivan Mikolji; (G) Phil Skinner. CLICk here to download the associated paper https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512254400798-9WRFZ2UIP83IE4AF2AA1/hoods.jpg Cobra Defensive Venom Evolution Relative degree of aposematic hood marking between (A,B) African (Naja haje) and (C,D) Asian (Naja naja) cobras with their higher levels of cytotoxicity;. Similar patterning to N. haje are seen in the the basally coloured African spitting cobras lacking aposematic marking like N. haje (E) N. nubiae and (F) N. ashei. Convergent reversal from aposematic markings to the basal drab coloured state accompanied by a lowering of cytotoxicity has occurred in (G) the Asian non‐spitting cobra N. oxiana and (H) the spitting cobra N. phillipinensis. The Pakistan Sindh desert population of N. naja displays the aposematic hood marking as juveniles and subadults but not (I) as adults, without any loss of cytotoxicity. Photos: (A,B) Arno Naude; (C,D) Gowri Mallapur; (E) HG Hjim; (F) Anothony Childs; (G,H) Randy Ciuros; (I) Bryan Fry. CLICk here to download the associated paper http://www.venomdoc.com/the-myth-of-komodo-dragon-bacteria daily 0.75 2017-12-03 https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/55a239e2e4b0b3a7ae106f25/1512291943243-EMJMI786DTKI9INMIQ48/Color+plate+30+komodo_buffalo.jpg The myth of komodo dragon bacteria The (un)natural history of Varanus komodoensis and Bubalus bubalis. These two animals share a habitat only because of the recent (< 300 years) introduction of B. bubalis onto the islands by Dutch settlers. Consequently, (A) B. bubalis does not recognize V. komodoensis as a natural predator, while V. komodoensis will experimentally attack any animal. (B) B. bubalis always escape but sometimes with deep wounds to the hindquarters. (C) Upon seeking refuge in the tiny rocky watering holes that are the only water source on the small islands, the wounds become infected because of the high concentrations of fecal matter. (D, E) If death occurs, multiple V. komodoensis will feed on the fresh carcass, using their powerful necks and forelegs to remove large chunks of meat. (F) Only once the adults have finished will the smaller V. komodoensis feed on the remains. (Photos A, D, E: Chris Kugelman; B, C: Bryan G. Fry; F: Gembong Riyadi Nurrasa.). 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